Women political leaders in Indonesia.

History & spread of Islam
The following is a brief account of the history and spread of Islam:
? Islam was born in an Arabia that was deeply coloured by the values, presence & the literature of the Bedouin Arabs. However, Muslims were able to elaborate the structures they inherited as to form one of the great religious civilisations of human history. In the early years after Muhammad’s death, Islam & Muslim rule spread beyond Arabia based on military powers.
? 570 €“ birth of Prophet Muhammad
? 610 €“ Prophet Muhammad receives the first revelations of the Qur’an in Mecca.
? 612-622 €“ Prophet Muhammad’s preachings were not well received by the Meccan establishment ? general persecution ? received invitation to lead the community in Medina
? 622-632 €“ migration of Muhammad & his followers from Mecca to Medina.
622 €“ marked the beginning of the Muslim era, & the year that Muslims under Muhammad established their political existence based on Islam. The Qur’an, the word of God, as revealed to Muhammad, was (is) the principle source for the workings of the Islamic state. These include:
? Moral responsibility, autonomy & dignity of the individual
? Detailed rules guiding Muslims in daily life €“ food taboos, hygiene, inter-personal & gender relations
? Concept of umma €“ a Muslim’s social responsibility is directed to the umma, Loyalty to the umma is seen as inseparable from loyalty to God. Membership of umma cuts across all distinctions of family, class & ethnicity, & in the contemporary world, that of the nation-state.
? After the death of Prophet Muhamamd in 632, Islam spread throughout the Arabian peninsula and beyond. Immediately after Muhammad, came the reign of the four Rightly-Guided caliphs:
? Abu Bakr (632-634), & Umar (634-644) €“ strong leadership, assured unity of Muslim community. Egypt & much of Iran under Muslim domination.
? Uthman (644-656) €“ expansionist policy followed, but less successful €“ strong opposition led to murder of Uthman.
? Ali (656-661) €“ internal tension, Ali killed by a faction of own army.
Ali’s death marked turning point of Islam €“ initial unity of Islam shattered €“ schism in Islam & crucial issue of whether civil order within the umma was more important than the divine mandated legitimacy of its leadership.
Establishment of dynasty of rulers €“ secular powers:
? Ummayads (661-750) €“ expansion of Muslim empire across North Africa to Spain, to the east in northwest India, to Central Asia, & Southeast Asia (Vietnam in 8th cent.) The political capital of Islam in Damascus. Ummayad dynasty marked by internal weakness & resentment by non-arab minorities €“> revolt against Ummayad rule.
? Abassids (750-1258) €“ golden age of the Caliphate €“ centre in Baghdad.

Rise of non-Arab Muslim Empires
? 1258 €“ fall of Baghdad as a result of Mongol invasion €“ political control from now on in non-Arab hands.
? Rise of non-Arab Muslim empires in Southwest Asia in 13th century:
1. Ottoman Empire extending into the Fertil;e Crescent, Syria, Iraq, North Africa & western coast of Arabian peninsula. 14th cent €“ Ottoman Turks crossed into Eastern Europe & took over most of the Balkan peninsula. From here, the Ottoman empire spread to the Black Sea & spread northwest to Vienna & northeast to Kiev.
To the south, Ottomans gained control of Egypt, North Africa & the Fertile Crescent.
1922 €“ end of Ottoman caliphate.

2. Saffavid Empire in present-day Iran.

Both empires reached their heights during 16th century.

3. Moghul Empire in India (16th €“19th cent.) €“ reached its height during Akbar’s reign (1556-1605). Moghuls controlled almost all of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kashmir & Bangladesh.
1858 €“ last Moghul emperor deposed by British.
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