Lesson 9- Human Genetics – Study Guide

1. Describe Gregor Mendel’s life and the experiments he conducted.

2. Identify the following as homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive or heterozygous:
a. HH
b. Hh
c. Hh

3. Identify the potential gametes that can be produced by parents with the genotypes of HH and Hh.

4. Do a monohybrid cross Punnett square to determine the possible genotypes of the following crosses:

HH and Hh

What is the ratio of dominant to recessive genotypes (the letter combinations)?

What is the ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes (what the offspring will look like)?

Hh and Hh

What is the ratio of dominant to recessive genotypes (the letter combinations)?

What is the ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes (what the offspring will look like)?

Hh and hh

What is the ratio of dominant to recessive genotypes (the letter combinations)?

What is the ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes (what the offspring will look like)?

5. Identify the following as homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive or heterozygous:

a. HH
b. Hh
c. Hh

6. If a person has the dominant phenotype, but is curious about whether they have the heterozygous or homozygous dominant genotype, how could they do a test cross to see what the options are?

7. What is Mendel’s Law of Segregation?

8. What is a homologous chromosome? Use this image to help you describe this. image from cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu

9. Fill in the dihybrid Punnett square for the following cross:

WwSs with WwSs

Lesson 10- DNA Structure and Function – Study Guide

1. Summarize the contribution to the understanding of DNA by each of the following scientists: Linus Pauling, Watson and Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.

2. List the three components of a nucleotide.

3. List the nitrogen bases found in DNA.

4. Label and describe the parts of the nucleotide:

5. What links the nucleotides together to form the strand of DNA? Describe the type of bond and the enzyme responsible for linking the nucleotides.

6. Explain the term complimentary base pairing.

7. Explain the significance of the base-pairing pattern.

8. Explain why the two strands of DNA are said to be antiparallel.

9. Explain the process of DNA replication.

10. Explain why DNA replication is said to be semiconservative.

11. Predict the alternative base pairing for a given nucleotide sequence like ATTGCCTGAACCTCG.

12. Describe the action of DNA polymerase and DNA ligase in DNA proofreading and repair.

13. Label this diagram of DNA replication:

14. How does DNA differ from RNA?

15. In your own words, explain how information is transferred from a gene to a protein.

16. What is the difference between transcription and translation?

17. Explain the role of RNA polymerase in transcription.

18. Describe the structure of tRNA and explain how that structure is related to its function.

19. Explain the structure of a ribosome and explain how its structure is related to its function.

20. Describe how mRNA is processed before it leaves the nucleus.

21. Transcribe the following DNA strand into mRNA and translate that strand into a polypeptide chain, identifying the codons and amino acid sequence.

a. DNA: A T A C G A AA T C G C G A T C G C G G C G A T T C G G
mRNA:
Codons:
Amino Acids:

b. DNA: T TT A C G G C C A T C A G G C A A T A C T G G
mRNA:
Codons:
Amino Acids:

c. DNA: T A C G GG C CT A T A C G C T A C T A C T CA T G G A T C G G
mRNA:
Codons:
Amino Acids:

d. DNA: G T A C G C G T A T A C C G A C A T T C
mRNA:
Codons:
Amino Acids:

22. Define the term mutagen.

23. Describe the concept of junk DNA and its importance in the human genome.

24. Explain why all genes are not expressed in all cells.

25. Describe how a cancer cell is different from a regular cell. Cancer cells mutate and reproduce more quickly than regular cells.

26. Explain the connection between genes and cancer.

Lesson 11 – Viruses, Bacteria and Genetic Engineering – Study Guide

1. Use this diagram to describe the structure of a virus:

2. How do viruses reproduce using the machinery of the cell?

3. What is a retrovirus? It is the opposite of the usual DNA to RNA flow of genetic information (retro means backwards)

4. What is reverse transcriptase?Catalyzes reverse transcription, the synthesis of DNA on an RNA templete.

5. What is the difference between HIV and AIDS?HIV is human immunodeficiency virus and AIDS is acquired immune deficiency syndrome. HIV infects and eventually kills several kinds of white blood cells that are important for immunity

6. How are bacteria different from viruses?Bacteria can transfer genes from cell to cell by one of three processes: transformation, transduction or conjugation. Viruses can be regarded as genes packaged in protein.

7. What are the three types of bacteria?It’s the 3 ways that bacteria can transfer DNA are by Transformation, Transduction and Conjugation

8. List some beneficial functions of bacteria?

9. Describe the various DNA structures within bacteria.

10. How has natural selection led to antibiotic resistance by bacteria?

11. What are the goals of genetic engineering?

12. What is a restriction enzyme?

13. Why are sticky ends important to gene splicing?

14. How do plasmids and viruses serve as vectors?

15. What is PCR and why is it useful?

16. What is gel electrophoresis and why is it useful?

17. How was the human genome discovered?

18. What are transposons?

19. How is biotechnology used in agriculture?

20. What is the controversy of using GMOs?

Lesson 12 – Tissues, Organ Systems & Homeostasis – Study Guide

1. Label these three types of epithelium:

2. What are glands and what are their functions?Glands are epithelial tissues that are specialized to synthesize and secrete a product

3. What is the purpose of these connective tissues:

Dense connective tissue- Found in tendons, ligaments and in lower layers of skin, has more collagen fibers. The fibers are oriented primarily in one direction, especially in the tendons and ligaments in and around our joints. Dense connective tissue is the strongest connective tissue when pulled in the same direction as the orientation of the fibers.

Adipose or connective tissue – Supports the softer organs of the body against gravity and connects the parts of the body together. It also stores fat and produces the cells of blood. Stores energy in the form of fat

Compact bone Connective Tissue –

Blood connective tissue –

Areolar connective tissue –

4. Describe tight, adhering and gap junctions.

5. Describe the structure and function of these muscle types:

Skeletal – Connects to tendons which attach to bones. When skeletal muscles contract they cause body parts to move.

Smooth – Surrounds hollow organs and tubes including blood vessels, digestive tract, uterus, and bladder.

Cardiac – IS found only in the heart. The individual cells are much shorter than skeletal muscle fibers and they only have one nucleus.

6. Label this neuron and describe what axons and dendrites do:

7. Describe mucous, serous, cutaneous and synovial membranes.

8. List the 11 major organ systems of the human body.Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Circulatory, Lymphatic, Respiratory, Nervous, Endocrine, Digestive, Urinary and Reproductive systems

9. List the major cavities of the human body.Cranial, Vertebral, Thoracic, Pleural, Pericardial, Abdominal and pelvic cavities

10. Explain the symmetry of the human body. Midsagittal, frontal and transfers planes. Superior, or inferior / distal or proximal/ anterior or posterior

11. Use the image to help you describe the characteristics of the layers of skin:

12. What type of cells make up each of the layers of skin?

Lesson 13 – Systems Overview I – Study Guide

1. Label the parts of this neuron:

2. Describe the chemistry of the nerve impulse transmission.

3. How does the impulse cross the synapse?

4. What is the effect of each of these on the nervous system:

a. Caffeine – Counters the effects of inhibitory neurotransmitters, ones that normally suppress nerve signals. (Stimulates and keeps you awake)
b. Nicotine -Stimulant
c. Alcohol – Depressant
d. Tranquilizers- Activates the receptors for GABA
e. Antipsychotic drugs – Block dopamine receptors
f. Amphetamines and cocaine –
g. LSD – Hallucinations – by activating serotonin and dopamine receptors
h. Marijuana – Euphoria, depress appetite, pain
i. Heroin – Reduce pain, produce euphoria

5. What are three functions of bone?Shape, Protection, Mineral Storage

6. What is the difference between the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton?Axiel supports the axis or trunk of the body and includes the skull, the vertebrae and spinal column, and rib cage Appendicular made up of the bones of the limbs, shoulders and pelvis

7. What is the difference between a ligament and a tendon?Ligaments are strong fibrous tissue and moveable joints that hold the bones of the skeleton together. Tendons connect muscle to bone

8. What is the difference between yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow?Bone marrow is either red or yellow, depending upon the preponderance of hematopoietic (red) or fatty (yellow) tissue. In humans the red bone marrow forms all of the blood cells with the exception of the lymphocytes, which are produced in the marrow and reach their mature form in the lymphoid organs. Red bone marrow also contributes, along with the liver and spleen, to the destruction of old red blood cells. Yellow bone marrow serves primarily as a storehouse for fats but may be converted to red marrow under certain conditions, such as severe blood loss or fever.

9. Describe thee movable joints.Ball and socket joint, hinge joint and pivot joint.

10. What is rheumatoid arthritis?Inflammation of the joints in which the joints become highly inflamed and their tissues may be destroyed by the body’s immune system. Usually begins between ages 40 and 50 and affects more women than men

11. What is osteoporosis?The lowered production of the hormone estrogen resulting in more porous, , thinner and more easily broken bones

12. What is the role of actin and myosin in muscle contraction?Actin and myosin are the major proteins found in muscle. The interaction of these two proteins, within each sarcomere causes the sarcomere to shorten. Actin is a round protein shaped roughly like a ball. In the sarcomere, many of these actin molecules are linked together in a long chain to form a filament, called thin filament. Myosin is a long thin protein with a head on it. Many of these myosin proteins are linked together in a bundle, also forming a filament, with the heads pointing out. Thick and thin filaments of myosin and actin are arranged next to each other within the sarcomere such that they can interact in an organized fashion resulting in muscle contraction.

13. Why do muscles fatigue? Describe the physiology behind this. It is the decline in ability of a muscle to generate force. It can be a result of vigorous exercise but abnormal fatigue may be caused by barriers to or interference with the different stages of musclecontraction. There are two main causes of muscle fatigue. The limitations of a nerve’s ability to generate a sustained signal (neural fatigue) and the reduced ability of the musclefiber to contract (metabolic fatigue).

14. What is the function of each part of the digestive system?The human digestive system consists of a digestive tube, called the alimentary canal – or gut and several accessory organs (salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder) that secrete digestive chemicals into the canal via ducts that secrete digestive chemicals into the canal via ducts.

Mouth – Pharynx – Esophagus – Stomach – Small intestine – large intestine (colon and rectum) – anus.Mouth – food intake and preliminary steps of digestion (mechanical digestion)Pharynx – Closes the trachea so that the food can go down the “right tube”Esophagus – Moves food down by rhythmic waves of muscular contractions so you can swallowStomach – Stores food to sustain us for several hours. It can stretch to store about 2L of food and water (more than a half-gallon)

15. Define the following:

a. Mechanical processing – The process of chewing. It breaks food down into small pieces
b. Secretion- 1.The discharge of molecules synthesized by a cell. 2. In the vertebrate kidney, the discharge of wastes from the blood into the filtrate from the nephron tubules
c. Digestion- The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb; the second main stage of food processing, following ingestion.
d. Absorption – The uptake of small nutrient molecules by an organism’s own body; the third main stage of food processing, following digestion.
e. Elimination – The passing of undigested material out of the digestive compartment

16. What molecules leave the small intestine and enter the blood and lymph systems?

17. What is the purpose of villi in the small intestine?The purpose of villi is to absorb adding even more surface area to the epithelium

18. What causes obesity?Sometimes its obesity,

19. What is the difference between malnutrition and under nutrition?Malnutrition means that the body is showing definite signs regarding the adverse effects of inappropriate nourishment. (lack of dietary intake). Under nutrition is the shortage of a specific nutrient or shortage of a nutritional component. Not from starving.

Lesson 14 – Systems Overview II – Study Guide

1. Which vessels carry oxygen rich blood?

2. Which vessels carry oxygen poor blood?

3. Are there exceptions to 1 and 2?

4. Use this diagram to trace a drop of blood through the heart and lungs:

5. What happens between cells and capillary beds?

6. What is the difference between systolic and diastolic readings in blood pressure checks?

7. Use this graphic to help you describe the cellular components of blood:

8. Describe plasma. The liquid matrix of blood in which the blood cells are suspended

9. What is the role of hemoglobin in carrying oxygen in the blood?Hemoglobin is an iron containing protein that transports oxygen. As red blood cells pass through the capillary bed of your lungs, oxygen diffuses into the red blood cells and binds to the hemoglobin.

10. How is the healing of a wound an example of homeostasis?

11. Describe the following conditions:

a. Anemia – An abnormally low amount of hemoglobin or a low number of red blood cells
b. Atherosclerosis – Cholesterol and other substances accumulate buildups called plaque that forms in the walls of arteries, narrowing the passages through which blood can flow.
c. Leukemia -Cancer of the white blood cells. Since cancer cells grow uncontrollably a person with leukemia has an unusually high number of white blood cells most of which are defective. The overabundance of these cells crowds out the bone marrow cells that produce red blood cells and platelets, causing severe anemia and impairs clotting.

12. What are alveoli?Where the bronchioles dead end. They are grapelike cluster of air sacs and our lungs contain millions of these sacs. They are lined with a layer of epithelial cells that forms the respiratory surface where gases are actually exchanged.

13. How does gas exchange work in the lungs?

14. Why does your breathing rate increase during exercise?

15. How does smoking affect the lungs? Every breath you take exposes your respiratory tissue to damaging chemicals. Tobacco smoke irritates the cell lining that lines the bronchi and trachea, inhibiting their ability to remove foreign substances from the airway. This interference with the normal cleansing mechanism of the respiratory system allows more toxin laden smoke particles to reach and damage the lungs delicate alveoli. Frequent coughing which is common in smokers is the respiratory systems way of attempting to compensate and clean itself.

16. What are the three lines of defense against pathogens?

17. What are pathogens? Disease causing organism

18. What is the difference between the antibody-mediated immune response and the cell-mediated immune response?

19. What is immunological memory?The bodys ability to recall or remember an antigen so that it can respond faster and stronger. This is after the initial exposure

20. What is the histamine response?

21. How does immunization work? What is the difference between active immunization and passive immunization? When the antigens enter the body naturally or artificially the resulting immunity is ACTIVE. When you receive antibodies premade or from the mothers bloodstream, that is PASSIVE

22. What is an autoimmune response?

23. What is anaphylactic shock?Dangerous allergic reaction

Lesson 15 – Systems Overview III – Study Guide

1. What role do hormones play in homeostasis?The role of hormones in homeostasis is essential to overall health. Getting regular exercise and eating right can help keep all natural processes within the body intact. Without healthy hormone regulation of various processes, the body is more vulnerable to disease.

2. Name and describe three glands in the human body. 1. Thyroid gland – Stimulates and maintains metabolic processes. 2. Parathyroid glands – Raises blood calcium levels 3. Pancreas – Lowers or raises blood glucose levels appropriately.

3. Why is the hypothalamus the master control over endocrine glands? – It is the pain control center of the endocrine system. It receives information from nerves about the internal condition of the body and about the external environment. It then responds by sending out appropriate neural or endocrine signals

4. What are endorphins?They are another kind of anterior pituitary hormone, are the body’s natural painkillers; mask the perception of pain. Sometimes called the “runners high”

5. Use this diagram to describe how insulin and glucagon maintain sugar balance in the blood.

6. What is the role of the hypothalamus in glucose metabolism?

7. What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes? Type 1 is insulin dependent, Type 2 can be controlled with diet and exercise

8. What are the parts of the male reproductive system?Penis, testes, scrotum, epididymis vas deferens and seminal vesicles, prostate and urethra. (p.373)

9. What do seminiferous tubules and vas deferens do?The seminiferous tubules are where sperm cells develop inside the testes. They are coiled tubes. The vas deferens is a duct that they travel through

10. What are the parts of the female reproductive system?Vagina, clitoris, ovaries, oviduct, uterus, endometrium , cervix

11. Where does fertilization of the egg occur and where does the egg go after fertilization?It is possible that if the egg is to be fertilized, and sperm is present; it may take place in the upper part of the oviduct. It is implanted in the endometrium.

12. What is an ovary? An oviduct? And oviduct is another word for fallopian tube. An ovary is the site of gamete production.

13. How do hormones, the pituitary and the hypothalamus gland maintain reproductive system homeostasis?

14. What are the most effective means of contraception?Abstinance

15. Describe the process of fertilization of the egg by the sperm. The sperm approaches and then contacts the jelly coat that surrounds the egg The acrosome in the sperm’s head releases a cloud of enzymes that digest a hole in the jelly. This allows the sperm head to fuse its plasma membrane with that of the egg. Fusion of the two membranes makes it possible for the sperm nucleus to enter the cytoplasm of the egg. Fusion also triggers completion of meiosis II in the egg. Furthermore, contact of sperm with egg triggers a change in the egg’s plasma membrane that makes it impenetrable to other sperm cells. This ensures that the zygote that is forming contains only the diploid number of chromosomes. The Chromosomes of the egg and sperm nuclei are eventually enclosed in a single diploid nucleus. In the diploid zygote, the eggs metabolic machinery awakens from dormancy and gears up in preparation for the enormous growth and development that will soon follow

16. What are the major events of each of the three trimesters in pregnancy?1st Trimester – Brain and spinal cord begin to take shape has four stumpy limb buds, a short tail and gill pouches. 2nd Trimester – Complete eyebrows and eyelashes. Arms, legs fingers and toes have lengthened. It has fingernails and toenails that are covered with fine hair. Fetal heartbeat is detectable. Mom can feel fetus moving at this time. By the end of this trimester, eyes are open and teeth are forming. 3rd Trimester – Circulatory and Respiratory system undergoes changes so that it can survive outside of the womb. Gains ability to regulate own temperature. Loses much of fine hair

17. What hormones are active at the time of childbirth?Oxytocin and prostaglandins

18. How is in vitro fertilization a solution to infertility?It ensures implantation or makes it easier for implantation and development. Sometimes the issue with infertility is that the man has a low sperm count. In vitro also ensures that the eggs are fertilized by the sperm which occurs in a petri dish.

Attachment:- Bio_Assignment.rar