CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

It can be noted that the first major landmark in the his­tory of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) came in 1865—at the end of the Civil War (after the Emancipation Proclamation)—when several significant efforts were made to systematize educational facili­ties that would permit freed slaves to assimilate and participate freely in the society (Browning & Williams, 1978). However, the first colleges for Black students had already been established in the North before the Civil War (Cheney in 1830; Lincoln in 1856 and Wilberforce in 1856). This happened under the sponsorship of Christian missionaries who were motivated by the apparent lack of educational opportunities for the freed slaves at the time (Branson, 1978). Comparable efforts were discour­aged in the South, where it was unlawful for slaves to receive education. But with the collapse of the Confederacy, activi­ties by Northern missionaries swelled to campaign proportions as more and more colleges were built for freed men (Pifer, 1973; Jencks & Riesman, 1968). But because of inadequate monetary backing, many of these colleges and universities ceased to function by 1900.

As was the tradition, African Americans themselves played an extremely minor role in establishing, financing, and managing what was to be their institutions (Jencks & Riesman, 1968). Even with their freed status, new students were treated as second-rate, inso­far as professors felt it incumbent upon them to shape students’ actions and principles. Additionally, the intellectual expectations of the freedmen were significantly small as white Southerners remained unsympathetic to the idea of educational growth among African Americans. According to Flemings (1984), the first students enrolled in HBCUs were perceived to be different from students in other colleges and universities: they were deemed the unedu­cated products of slavery that had not attained the standard quali­fications for attendance into a higher education institution.

Many of the colleges were designed to train black preachers and other clergymen, but because of the small number of qualified clerical students, most of the colleges became de facto teach­er’s institutions. Flemings (1984) reports that these institutions were colleges in name only, consisting of elementary and secondary school de­partments. A small number of them developed complex curric­ula and started giving Bachelor of Arts degrees after 1865. Liberal arts curricula were accessible in these colleges to help African Americans become fully participating citizens (Browning & Wil­liams, 1978). According to the United Negro College Fund’s senior vice president Dr. Karl Reid (2008), HBCUs account for about 28% of all degrees accredited to African Americans in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. In addition, these institutions account for 34% of degrees awarded in the fields of microbiology, mathematics and physics. These statistics underscore the importance of HBCUs in America’s education system and job market.

Students attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) consider these institutions an ideal choice as they continue to provide essential services, especially in motivating black students (Benavides, 1996). Benavides (1996) notes that over 30 percent of black students who enroll in colleges consider HBCUs as ideal. However, many African American students in California have shifted to local colleges and state universities (Kerr, 1999). Fleming (1984) noted that some institutions of higher learning have failed to convince the world about their value, mainly because of challenges in documenting the somewhat intangible service they provide. Fleming further noted that, until recently, major studies of HBCUs have been concerned with endowment, educational facilities (classrooms, laboratories & libraries), faculty and administrative salaries, and student services. For this reason, most HBCUs have failed to compete effectively with the predominantly white institutions (PWIs), including those in California.

According to Shropshire (2011), black students have not realized how important HBCUs are in educating black students in the disciplines of mathematics and the sciences. Even though these institutions record low enrollment rates, they exhibit higher graduation rates than their white counterparts. Therefore, the core issue that needs to be addressed is whether HBCUs are relevant to African American students in California. Fleming (1984) says that the impact of college environments on student performance (especially African American college environments) have not received adequate attention from the research community. This can partly be due to the fact that the strengths of HBCUs may be too restrained or too subtle to be captured by data. An existing belief is that the phenomenon can only be looked at through the use of anecdotes.

Problem Statement

Black Colleges and Universities were established with the primary objective of edifying and empowering the people of African descent. Over the years, these institutions have grown in importance and enroll 16% and graduate approximately 20% of all African-Americans who attend college. The main reason why HBCUs draw many African American students is the empowering, family-like environment of small classes, close faculty-student relationships, and life without the daily racial tensions experienced off-campus (Gasman & Bowman, 2011b). Gasman & Bowman (2011b), further notes that the growth in college enrollments of HBCUs has leveled off in recent years as HBCUs compete for students with the better-funded historically white institutions. According to Gasman & Bowman (2011), HBCUs lack good marketing strategies for their courses and consequently face stiff competition from historically White institutions. This is also possibly due to the lack of awareness, through research, on the ability for the HBCUs to serve the needs and interests of the Blacks in this country. This kind of information would market the HBCUs and the role they play, as well as foster more enrollments to serve more blacks from in California, where there is no HBCU.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study is to establish the effectiveness of HBCUs in serving the interests and needs of black native Californian, who choose to attend and graduate from a HBCUs as an undergraduate verses those that attended and a college in California such as the California State Universities and University of California intuitions for their undergraduate studies. This will be achieved through studying such variables as undergraduate student experiences, career preparation, career advancement, and post graduate advantages of black students native Southern Californians from attending HBCUs, before proceeding to other institutions in their home state.

Importance of Study

This research study may have significance for several constituents in the American society. One major group that will benefit from the findings of this research is HBCUs presidents and administrators. The findings from this study may prove to be a source of important information. These findings can be used by the HBCUs administration in developing effective means of enhancing the quality of education that might account for their mission and purpose. This suggests that the findings from the research can be useful as a marketing tool for these institutions. HBCUs executives can use the results of this research to advocate for new funding mechanisms that will contribute to the aspirations of HBCUs. This research will also provide vital information that will help students make accurate assessments of HBCUs and the benefits that they may gain by attending them as an undergraduate and then the benefits of returning to their home state for their graduate studies. Thus, the findings are useful in the decision making process for black students native Californians, together with their guardians in terms of the college or university of choice, and generally on the quality of education they would want to acquire. It is thus important that such a study is carried out that it may be beneficial to the society and potentially advocate for the HBCUs and California colleges and universities. The findings of the study might also play a very important role in terms of policy making in education of the Blacks in this country. The findings will inform national debates surrounding Black colleges as well as the social constructs that continue to devalue their status within the American society.  The findings may also be a strong basis for decision making, on whether to retain the HBCUs, restructure, or abolish them, based on the evidence or lack thereof, of their effectiveness in addressing the needs and interests of the black students and the society at large.

Source: (HBCU Digest, 2013).

Definition of Terms

A number of important terms as used in the study are defined:

1. African American (Black): Any person having origins in any of the racial groups of Black Africa (Allen, 1992).
2. Historically Black College and University (HBCUs): Constantine (1995) defines HBCUs as institutions of higher learning established with primary mission of educating African Americans

• Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs): According to Gibbs (1974) PWIs are institutions of higher learning where the student body is majority Caucasian American.

1. School Experiences: Are the events or activities in which one takes part in at school and help shape individuality (Allen, 1988).
2. Career Preparation: Encompasses all the activities which prepares college students for job market or job related requirements (Kerr, 1999).
3. Career Advancement: Includes all the activities which lead to promotion in the work place or expansion of roles and responsibilities (Kerr, 1999).

• Post-Graduate Opportunities: These are the job markets or openings available for post-graduates (Thompson, 1978).

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical and methodological framework for the current study is provided by institutional effectiveness model (Kim, 1995, 2001), for examining whether there is a difference in terms of students’ outcomes of degree completion in attending HBCUs. In her dissertation research, Kim (1995) used, and expanded Astin’s input-environment-outcome model in studying the institutional effectiveness of women-only colleges on a number of intellectual as well as ethical outcomes. Using a multi-level modeling perspective, the author did not only try to systematically distinguish characteristics of global college from the characteristics of internal college, but also placed an emphasis on the concurrent effect of college-level culture, structure, as well as opportunities, together with individual-level actions and experiences. The blend design of the two models, the institutional effectiveness model and multi-level modeling is useful in examining the effectiveness of HBCUs on the development and achievement of student (Kim, 2002). Kim’s institutional effectiveness model will be explored further in the following sections (literature review and methods sections).

Research Questions

The following four research questions will guide this study:

1. What are the school related experiences of the graduates at a historically black college as an undergraduate compared to those that experienced graduating from a public or private university undergraduate program in California?
2. How did the perceptions of black graduates of historically black colleges and universities regarding their undergraduate college program career preparation compare with the perceptions of black graduates of public or private colleges and universities in California for their undergraduate school program?
3. How do the perceptions of black graduates of HBCUs and those black graduates of a public or private colleges and universities in California compare regarding post-graduation advantages associated with their undergraduate program experience?
4. How do the perceptions of black graduates of HBCUs regarding post-graduation advantages associated with their undergraduate program experience compare with the perceptions of those black graduates of a PWI in California regarding their undergraduate program experience?

Delimitations

This study is delimited to Black students who are (a) graduates from HBCUs, (b) in four year colleges, (c) in the state of California, (d) and their experiences, career preparation, career advancement, and postgraduate advantages.  Students who are not California natives or those who are in other states will not be included in the study. Two-year universities or colleges and those outside CA will not be included in the study. Therefore, focusing only on the black students who meet the study specifications is a major delimitation because the findings cannot be applied among the other demographic categories within the population.

Limitations

This section highlights external conditions which restricted the scope of the study. These conditions are beyond the control of the researcher. There is a probability that the research study will suffer from possible quality of sample composition. The study sample will not be heterogeneous because the study will focus on Black students graduating from Historically Black Colleges and Universities. The limited heterogeneity may affect the outcomes of predictor variables because some white students attend HBCUs and vice versa. Great care will be taken to ensure that these limitations do not affect the validity and reliability of the research. The other major limitation of the study is time and financial constraints, which will not allow the study to be carried out in other states. In spite of these limitations, the study is necessary as it attempts to determine indicators of career advancement that are unique to HBCUs.

Assumptions

            Educational quality is a subjective concept that is based partly on the opinions of those assessing it. In this regard, certain assumptions were made to ensure that this research study is a true reflection of the reality. The first assumption is that quality education can only be offered in an institution with abundant resource endowment, which have the resources to market what they offer. The second assumption is that HBCUs provide student experiences, career preparation, and post graduate opportunities that are particularly valuable for black individuals. The third assumption is that participants in the study will respond as openly and accurately as is possible. These assumptions are the key pillars upon which the research design is based.

Organization of the Study

The current study is organized into a number of five important areas. Chapter I is a critical overview of a research phenomenon study. In this section I also discussed the reasons for studying this problem as well as its significance. Chapter II is an extensive review of literature relevant to the study. In chapter II  I discussed four major areas: career preparation of Blacks in HBCUs as an undergraduate verses black students at a predominantly white institution (PWI); career advancement of Black graduates from HBCUs as an undergraduate verses black students at a PWI; post-graduation advantages of Black graduates of HBCUs as an undergraduate verses black students at a PWI, and school experiences for black undergraduates in HBCUs verses black students at a PWI. Chapter III is a detailed discussion of the research design and methods used to conduct the research. Chapter IV will be a presentation of the findings of the study. Chapter V will be a summary of the study as well as a discussion of the implications of the study.

 

 

 

 

Chapter II: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The main purpose of this study is to establish the effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities in serving the interests and needs of black native Californians, who choose to attend and graduate from a HBCUs as an undergraduate compared to black students from other colleges in California such as the California State Universities and University of California intuitions for their undergraduate school studies. The guiding questions are:

1. What are the school related experiences of the graduates at a historically black college as an undergraduate compared to those that experienced graduating from a public or private university undergraduate program in California?
2. How did the perceptions of black graduates of historically black colleges and universities regarding their undergraduate college program career preparation compare with the perceptions of black graduates of public or private colleges and universities in California for their undergraduate school program?
3. How do the perceptions of black graduates of HBCUs and those black graduates of a public or private colleges and universities in California compare regarding post-graduation advantages associated with their undergraduate program experience?
4. How do the perceptions of black graduates of HBCUs regarding post-graduation advantages associated with their undergraduate program experience compare with the perceptions of those black graduates of a PWI in California regarding their undergraduate program experience?

This study is guided by institutional effective model, which is basically a theoretical framework that aims to connect institutional effectiveness worth the assessment of the intended outcomes for the students. There are many studies currently that are comparing HBCUs with Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs). As the basis for this study, the focus is on establishing the effectiveness of HBCUs in relations to the outcomes of the black students born and raised in California. Institutional characteristics are the main point of focus for the study. These are the main variables that will be examined throughout the study, with this section examining the literature on various areas of effectives of the institutions, such as undergraduate student experiences, career preparation, career advancement, and post graduate advantages of black students native Californians from attending HBCUs, before proceeding to other institutions in the state.

The following key variables will also be looked at: career preparation of Blacks in HBCUs and in traditional CA institution, school experiences for Black undergraduates in HBCUs and in traditional CA institutions, career advancement of Black graduates from HBCUs and from traditional CA institutions, post-graduation advantages of Black graduates in HBCUs and in traditional institutions as a graduate student.

Before proceeding with review of literature on the various identified variables, it is important to begin with a description of where HBCUs are coming from. Current statistics reveal that there are over 100 historically Black colleges and universities in the country today. According to Gasman & Bowman (2011a), these are institutions of Higher learning with a primary aim of educating blacks in the country. These institutions have developed since 1837 when their main goals to educate freed slaves to be able to read and write. As the world enters the 21^st century, alongside graduate and post-graduate degrees, HBCUs are still providing African American students with a place to acquire a sense of heritage, identity, and community, (Lenhart, Moore and Parker2011).

Before these black colleges were founded and for a long time afterwards, African Americans have faced a high level of segregation and discrimination, denying them the chance for quality education (Turner and Bound, 2003). Admission to traditionally White institutions has always been a problem for the blacks, according to the authors. This led to HBCUs becoming the main channel for provision of post-secondary education to African Americans. Presently, HBCUs must achieve their educational objective far past the ones initially set. The unique mission of HBCUs was described by former President George Bush as follows:

“At a time when many schools barred their doors to black Americans, these colleges offered the best, and often the only, opportunity for a higher education” (Malhotra & Vlahovic, 2011, p. 444).

There has always been a dilemma in the educational sector that has affected the American society mirroring a testimony of under-representation of students from minority communities in colleges as well as universities in the country (Malhotra & Vlahovic, 2011). According to Lenhart, Moore and Parker (2011), African American students have historically encountered significant impediments in their pursuit of education particularly from high school level to college. In this context, it is imperative to reflect on the contributions of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) to the career progression of African Americans from California. At the same time, HBCUs represent a very important component of higher education in the United States (Historical Origins of HBCUs, 2010).

Source: (www.diversityweb.org/Digest/vol8no1/chart1.jpg).

According to Turner and Bound (2003), in the advancement of higher education in America, significant developments in legislation have ventured towards the promotion of African American access to and achievement in higher education. For instance, the 1890 Morrill Land-Grant College Act initiated the establishment of Black colleges where African Americans would access undergraduate education mainly in the southern states. This Act strictly barred the allocation of federal resources to states that failed to offer separate room for African Americans, if the main state institution deprived African Americans the right of admission (Gasman & Bowman III, 2011b).

In the past, HBCUs epitomized fledgling institutions that had a mandate to educate the most excellent and brightest African American students in the U.S. (Gasman & Bowman, 2011a). In the present day, HBCUs embody a wide-range of institutions of higher learning that bring together scores of the top African American high school graduates, prepare them for college, and groom them to take up positions of great responsibility in the society upon college graduation (Gasman & Bowman, 2011b).

Overview of the 1890 Morrill Land-Grant College Act

In the current age as argued by Malhotra & Vlahovic (2011), major barriers to provision of education to blacks through HBCUs have been eliminated by the law. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2011), the 1890 Morrill Land-Grant College Act discontinued funding for all established land grants that utilized color as a fundamental requisite for admission, with no separate college for students of African American descent. Consequently, a few colleges which were mainly annex campuses of the formerly established land grants of 1860 were founded. The norm was that the main campus kept approximately 95 percent of the federal support, and the 1890 land grant school received an allocation of the outstanding five percent. This contributed significantly towards the several shortcomings these schools faced, mainly with regard to the allocation of federal resources. Milakovich and Gordon (2001) assert that a key element of the 1890 Morrill Land-Grant Act stipulated that a school established under the state’s land grant should not exhibit prejudice against students of African American descent. On the other hand, the Act stipulated that a state had an option to set up two land-grant schools where one would cater for students of African American descent and the other would cater for white students, and still be consistent with the law (Gasman & Bowman III, 2011b). Since the Southern law and practice necessitated separate educational facilities, border and southern states embarked on the establishment of black land-grant schools. The rationale in this case was to enhance federal support for whites rather than the promotion of educational prospects for African American students (Ibarra, 2000). This led to a scenario where white schools received more support for classical studies, while black schools continued being inclined towards remaining as vocational schools. Consequently, this contributed significantly to the higher educational division between the African American students and their white counterparts (Ibarra, 2000).

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)

HBCUs epitomize the sole institutions in the US that were established primarily for the exclusive rationale of educating African American citizens (Ervin & Davenport, 2008). Ervin & Davenport (2008) further argue that in the present day, several policymakers continue to challenge the significance of HBCUs on the premise that these institutions of learning are ineffective in the contemporary integrated system of higher learning. This has however been the common practice since the conventional ‘white only’ colleges and universities started admitting minority students (Ervin & Davenport, 2008). The Freedmen’s Bureau under the federal governments was instrumental in the establishment of the HBCUs with backing from mainly white abolitionist missionaries as well as Northern philanthropists who either intended to convert the blacks into Christians or train them to work in their industrial ventures. However, under the African Methodist Episcopal Church, African Americans were able to establish HBCUs (Turner & Bound, 2003), such as schools like Paul Quinn College.

According to studies conducted by Gasman and Bowman (2011a), currently there are approximately 100 HBCUs that enroll above 11 percent of African American students in the US, yet the HBCUs represent below three percent of universities and colleges in the country. Currently, HBCUs present rigorous academic curriculums, culture, and a rich history. They also train scholars for leadership to prepare them for their life after graduation (Ibarra, 2000).  Consequently, HBCUs are, in the modern day, regarded to be among the top educational systems where students of African American descent or any other race can be able to obtain high quality education (Gasman and Bowman, 2011a). According to Ervin & Davenport (2008) HBCUs signify roughly three percent of the country’s higher learning institutions and majority of African Americans who enroll in these institutions acquire undergraduate degrees successfully. As Lenhart, Moore, & Parker (2011) assert, over 50 percent black professionals graduate from HBCUs, as well as public school educators. Studies have demonstrated that HBCUs maintain a distinctive legacy to the explicit needs of youthful African American minds (Turner & Bound, 2003). This is demonstrated by the effective capacity of the HBCUs to help graduate black students who are equipped to engage competitively in the academic, corporate, military, research, and governmental fields.

It can be noted for the readers understanding that the first major landmark in the his­tory of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) began to be developed in 1865. This was a time when several significant efforts were made to develop educational facili­ties that would permit freed slaves to assimilate and participate freely in the society (Browning & Williams, 1978). However, the first colleges for Black students had already been established in the North before the Civil War (Cheney in 1830; Lincoln in 1856 and Wilberforce in 1856). It happened under the sponsorship of Christian missionaries who were motivated by the apparent lack of educational opportunities for the freed slaves at the time (Branson, 1978). Comparable efforts were discour­aged in the South, where it was unlawful for slaves to receive an education. However, the collapse of the Confederacy caused Northern missionaries to campaign for more and more colleges for freedmen (Pifer, 1973; Jencks & Riesman, 1968). Many of these colleges and universities ceased to function by 1900 because of inadequate monetary backing by the federal government.

Although they were free citizens, new students were treated as inferior to their white counterparts, as professors felt it was their responsibility to shape students’ principles and actions. In addition, the intellectual anticipations of the freed slaves were significantly small as white Southerners remained opposed to the idea of learning growth among African Americans. According to Flemings (1984), the first students enrolled in HBCUs were perceived to be dissimilar from learners in other universities and colleges. Apparently, they were deemed as the illiterate creations of slavery that had not qualified for attendance into a higher education institution.

Many of the colleges were designed to train black preachers and other clergymen. Liberal arts curricula were accessible in these colleges to help African Americans become fully participating citizens (Browning & Wil­liams, 1978). According to the United Negro College Fund’s senior vice president Dr. Karl Reid (2008), HBCUs account for about 28% of all degrees accredited to African Americans in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (Pifer 1973). In addition, these institutions account for 34% of degrees awarded in the fields of microbiology, mathematics and physics. These statistics underscore the importance of HBCUs in America’s education system and job market. Although most black students performed poorer than their white counterparts, it was a step in the right direction. This aspect is because, prior to the introduction of HBCUs, very little was being done to educate the black race.

Learners in Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) considered these institutions ideal choices as they continued to provide essential services, especially in motivating black students (Benavides, 1996). Benavides (1996) notes that over 30 percent of black students who enroll in colleges consider HBCUs as ideal. However, many African American students in California have shifted to local colleges and state universities (Kerr, 1999). Fleming (1984) noted that some institutions of higher learning have failed to convince the world about their value, mainly because of challenges in documenting the intangible service they provide. Fleming further noted that, until recently, major studies of HBCUs have been concerned with endowment, educational facilities (classrooms, laboratories & libraries), faculty and administrative salaries, and student services. For this reason, most HBCUs have failed to compete effectively with the predominantly white institutions (PWIs), including those in California.

According to Shropshire (2011), black students have not realized how important HBCUs are in educating black students in the disciplines of mathematics and the sciences. Although these institutions record low enrollment rates, they exhibit higher graduation rates than their white counterparts. Therefore, the core issue tha