Abstract

This report summarizes an experiment that investigated the occurrence of Rash Impulsivity and Sensitivity to Rewards among users of ecstasy (MDMA). The predicators measured were Sensitivity to Rewards and Rash Impulsivity and the dependent variable was frequency of ecstasy use.  A sample size of 203 university students, 118 females and 85 males, with a mean age of 23.54 years participated in the study. The participants were required to report about their ecstasy in the past year. The objective of this research was to find out if there are differences in the level of rash impulsivity sensitivity to reward between those who use and those who do not user ecstasy. It also sought to find out if frequency of ecstasy use can be predicted by rash impulsivity and sensitivity to reward. The results were recorded categorically either as user or non-user. It was found out that high rash impulsivity and sensitivity to reward were sustained by ecstasy use. Multiple analyses of statistics for this experiment showed that the two factors of are valid variables to analyze ecstasy users.

 

Key words: impulsivity, sensitivity, ecstasy, reward, users, non-users

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Investigating Rash Impulsivity and Sensitivity to Rewards in Ecstasy Use

Since the year 2001 Australia has reported an increased use of ecstasy in the population more than any other illicit drug (Maxwell, 2008). A nationwide campaign against drug use in Australia resulted in a decrease in the use of illegal drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens and injecting drugs (Maxwell, 2008). However, the alcohol use and ecstasy use increased (Maxwell, 2008). A substantial proportion of ecstasy users in Australia reported that their drug use had an influence on other areas of their lives such as their relationships, employment and education (Maxwell, 2008).

Studies have shown the users of ecstasy show increased use of other drugs (Maxwell, 2008) like amphetamine, LSD and cocaine (Butler & Montgomery, 2004). Other studies have revealed that heavy ecstasy users display a range of psycho-biological problems (Parrott, Sisk & Turner, 2000).In their study Parrott, Sisk & Turner (2000), used a control group of non-users to compare their psychological status to that of users (Parrott, Sisk & Turner, 2000). The ecstasy users reported significantly higher scores in symptoms of psychopathology including somatization, obsessionality, anxiety, hostility, phobic-anxiety, paranoid ideation (Parrott, Sisk & Turner, 2000).

Researchers in the field of drug addiction suggest that drug users have a diminished ability to inhibit their drug using tendencies, despite the problems associated with substance dependence, since they display rash impulsiveness (Dawe, Gullo & Loxton, 2004). Rash impulsivity has different definitions by different theorists but it usually refers to tendencies to behave rashly, without forethought or planning (Dawe et al., 2004). It is behavior that occurs without reflection or careful deliberation (Dawe et al., 2004).

According to Butler and Montgomery (2004) it may be that the impulsive and risk-taking behaviors among ecstasy users are consequences of low levels of serotonin which is a result of ecstasy use (Butler & Montgomery, 2004). They also suggest that impulsivity which is associated with ecstasy use may be related to an increase in the use of illegal drugs (Butler & Montgomery, 2004) and other self-report and behavioral effects (Butler & Montgomery, 2004).

1. A. Gray’s “Reinforcement Sensitivity theory” used the term impulsivity to explain that there exist differences in the degree of individual sensitivity to reward signals (Torrubia, Avila, Molto & Caseras, 2001) (Dawe et al., 2004). Torrubia et al. (2001) investigated Gray’s model of personality that consists of two motivational systems (Torrubia et al., 2001) namely, the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) (Torrubia et al., 2001) and the Behavioral Activation System (BAS) (Torrubia et al., 2001). It has been argued that BAS is basically an index of reward sensitivity or drive (Dawe et al., 2004). On the other hand, BIS underlies the personality trait of impulsivity (Dawe et al., 2004). Therefore, rather than being a single construct impulsivity consists of two facets and is thus defined as rash impulsive behavior (Dawe et al., 2004) and heightened sensitivity to reward (Dawe et al., 2004).

A study by Torrubia et al. (2001) investigated the factors of sensitivity to reward (SR) and sensitivity to punishment (SP) (Torrubia et al., 2001) using the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ) (Torrubia et al., 2001). It concluded that females outscore males SP while males score higher on SR (Torrubia et al., 2001).

The ?ndings of a study carried out by Butler & Montgomery (2004) showed that impulsiveness scores were positively correlated with the most ecstasy used on any one occasion and the typical amount taken on any one occasion (Butler & Montgomery, 2004). This study used a one-dimensional approach as the scale used measured impulsivity as a single trait using the IVE (Butler & Montgomery, 2004), impulsiveness, venturesomeness and empathy questionnaire (Butler & Montgomery, 2004). Another research that also used the IVE questionnaire revealed that impulsivity was significantly higher in heavy ecstasy users compared than in control groups (Parrott et. al, 2000).

The experiment discussed in this paper will examine a two-factor structure of impulsivity (Dawe et al., 2004) which includes rash impulsivity and sensitivity to rewards. Objectives of this research were to find out if there are differences in the level of rash impulsivity or sensitivity to reward between users and non-users of ecstasy. It examined whether the frequency of ecstasy use can be predicted by the said factors.

The following hypotheses guided this research

Hypothesis 1: There exists significant difference in the level of rash impulsivity between users and non-users of ecstasy

Hypothesis2: There is a significant difference between the level of sensitivity to rewards between users and non-users of ecstasy.

Method

Participants

The sample size of this experiment was made up of 203 undergraduate university students at Deakin University. It comprised of 118 females and 85 males. Thus females made 58.1% while males made 41.9% of the sample. The mean age of the sample was 23.54 years with a standard deviation of 5.096 (M=23.54, SD=5.096).

Materials

Ecstasy use

Participants were asked to report how often they have used ecstasy in the past year. This formed the basis for both categorical and continuous measures of ecstasy use. For the categorical approach, responses to this item were re-coded into 0 (non-user) or 1 (user – any value greater than 0).

Sensitivity to reward

The 24-item sensitivity to reward (SR) subscale of the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (Torrubia, et al., 2001) was used in the present study. Participants give ‘yes/no’ responses to specific statements relating to sensitivity to reward (e.g., ‘Does the good prospect of obtaining money motivate you strongly to do some things?’) (Torrubia et al., 2001). Values of 1 are assigned to ‘Yes’ responses, and 0 to ‘No’ responses. Participants’ responses are summed and higher scores reflect greater sensitivity to reward. The SR scale possesses adequate internal consistency, test- retest reliability, and factorial validity (Cooper & Gomez, 2008; Torrubia et al., 2001).

Rash impulsivity

The impulsiveness subscale of Eysenck and Eysenck’s (1978) Impulsiveness, Venturesomeness, and Empathy scale was used to measure rash impulsivity. This subscale consists of 19 questions which respondents answer in a Yes/No format, with responses of ‘No’ assigned a value of 0 and ‘Yes’ responses assigned values of 1. An example question is ‘Would you enjoy water skiing?’ Responses are summed to produce an overall score for rash impulsivity, with higher scores reflecting greater impulsivity. This scale has demonstrated psychometric properties (Eysenck, Pearson, Easting & Allsopp, 1985) and has been used in previous studies of ecstasy use (e.g., Parrott et al., 2000).

Procedure

Participants were recruited from undergraduate courses offered at Deakin University. Announcements were made at the beginning of lectures to advertise the study to students. Flyers were left at the entrance to the lecture theatre and students who were interested in participating were invited to pick up a flyer at the end of class. The flyers contained a weblink which students could use to access and fill out the survey online.

   Results

Out of the 203 participants, 58.1% were females while males 41.9% were males. 72 (35.5%) reported that they had not used ecstasy in the past year while 131 (64.5%) had used the drug. The subscale score of rash impulsivity recorded a mean of 5.82 while the sensitivity to reward subscale recorded a mean of 8.46. The maximum value for each independent variable was 0.18 and the minimum was 0.00. The impulsivity factor had a standard deviation of 3.49 while that of the rash sensitivity factor was 4.92.

To measure there are differences in levels of rash impulsivity and sensitivity between ecstasy users and non-users; an independent sample two-tailed t-test was used to compare the mentioned variables. For user and non-user subject rash impulsivity group differences via t-test, and equal variances assumed was (F?=?27.62, df?=?201, p=0.076). In the case of user and non-user sensitivity to rewards it was (F?=?41.94, df?=?201, p=0.087).

Standard multiple regression analyses using ANOVA were made to analyze the statistical significance of sensitivity to reward and rash impulsivity as predictors of the frequency of ecstasy use. The p-value of sensitivity to reward score was 0.045 and the p-value of rash sensitivity was 0.000.

Discussion

The main aim of the study was to determine whether the users and non-users of ecstasy differ in rash impulsivity and sensitivity to rewards. It intended to ascertain if the two factors can be predictors of ecstasy taking behavior. The study used the two factor model of impulsivity stipulated by Dawe et al. (2004), to investigate the significance of rash impulsivity and sensitivity to rewards in the use of ecstasy.

Hypothesis 1 suggested that there is a difference in levels of rash impulsivity between the users and non-users of ecstasy. Using the t-test it was found out that the p-value of rash impulsivity was <0.05 therefore suggesting that there is a significant difference in the level of rash impulsivity between those who used ecstasy and those who did not. Those that used ecstasy scored higher than the non-users in rash impulsivity.

Hypothesis 2 suggested that there is a difference in the levels of sensitivity to rewards between the users and non-users of ecstasy. Using the t-test it was found out that the p-value of rash impulsivity was <0.05 therefore suggesting that there is a significant difference in the level of sensitivity to rewards between those who used ecstasy and those who did not. Those that used ecstasy scored higher than the non-users in sensitivity to rewards.

The results support the argument that those who use ecstasy are more likely to engage in risky and impulsive behaviors (Butler & Montgomery, 2004). Their behavior involves committing rash actions without thinking and a lack of foresight or planning (Dawe et al., 2004). Thus, ecstasy use lowers the users’ inhibitions making them prone to acting on impulse rather than considering the consequences of their actions.

Furthermore, the results show that impulsivity and reward sensitivity are related as stated by Gary’s theory of reward sensitivity ((Dawe et al., 2004) (Torrubia et al., 2001). The users scored higher than non-users in sensitivity to reward implying that they are more predisposed to rewarding cues. This explains why the various studies conducted earlier have found that ecstasy users also use other drugs (Butler & Montgomery, 2004). They associate drug taking behavior with good feelings thus that is the reward they get. This sensitivity to rewards is likely the factor that leads to dependence on ecstasy and the desire to use other drugs in an attempt to get rewards, in this case the feelings associated with being high.

The two factor model of impulsivity suggests that both conceptualizations of impulsivity are an important factor in attempting to understand why individuals turn to and then maintain addictive behaviors (Dawe et al., 2004). This experiment supported the two factor model since it showed that both rash impulsivity and sensitivity to rewards are strongly present in users of ecstasy. There uninhibited behavior due to impulsivity makes users of ecstasy likely to engage in drug taking behavior despite knowing the negative influences that the drug has on their lives. Also, the factor of reward sensitivity makes them to keep taking the drug because they associate it with good feelings. The presence of these two factors in ecstasy users therefore leads to addictive behavior. Since the p-values of the ANOVA regression tests were <0.05 for both factors, rash impulsivity and sensitivity to rewards can be used as predicators of ecstasy use.

There were several limitations to this study such as the time frame of estimating drug use. There is no measure of analyzing if those who were classified as non-users used ecstasy before or if they used other drugs also. The study focused on participants who had used ecstasy in the past year only. The study did not analyze demographic factors such as age and gender in more detail. Also there was no way of finding out the behavior of the participants prior to drug use so other factors could be increasing their rash impulsivity and sensitivity to rewards such as psychosocial factors.

Longitudinal research needs to be done in order to have more accurate results regarding drug taking behavior. Also, other studies can focus on investigating the differences in gender in relation to ecstasy use. Additionally, as seen in earlier reports about drug taking trends in Australia, alcohol use had also increased just as ecstasy use. Thus future studies can incorporate the two factor model in studying alcoholics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

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Dawe, S., Gullo, M.J., & Loxton, N.J. (2004). Reward drive and rash impulsiveness as dimensions of impulsivity: Implications for substance misuse. Addictive

Behaviours, 29, 1389-1405.

Eysenck, S.B.G., Pearson, P.R., Easting, G., Allsopp, J.F. (1985). Age norms for Impulsiveness  Venturesomeness and empathy in adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 6,613-619

Parrott, A.C., Sisk, E., & Turner, J.J.D. (2000). Psychobiological problems in heavy ‘Ecstasy’ (MDMA) polydrug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 60, 105-111.

Maxwell, J. C. (2008). Are we becoming more alike? Comparison of substance use in Australia and the United States as seen in the 1995, 1998, 2001 and 2004 national household surveys. Drug and Alcohol Review, 27, 473-481. doi: 10.1080/09595230802090055.

Topp, L., Hando, J., Dillon, P., Roche, A., & Solowij, N. (1999). Ecstasy use in Australia:

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Torrubia, R., Ávila, C., Moltó, J., & Caseras, X. (2001). The Sensitivity to Punishment and

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