Order Description
The assessment for this module consists of the two questions shown below you must answer BOTH questions. The total word count for this assessment is 2500 words thus question 1 should be 1500 1700 words in length and question 2 should be 800 to 1000 words. The answer should make appropriate use of both accurate Harvard referencing and illustrative examples to support the analyses.1. Many entrepreneurial SMEs do not follow a planned, strategic approach to the issue of internationalisation. Most do so by means of an evolutionary strategy based on a combination of methods and options. Using relevant illustrative example for each approach, review the various options that can be used, the advantages and disadvantages these options and how the probability of success can be maximised. (60 marks)2. The OECD suggests that SMEs have a tendency to move to markets that are geographically or psychologically close to them. Again, using relevant illustrative example for each approach, address the following two questions
a) What are the advantages of this approach? (25 marks)
b) What are challenges that are presented by moving to markets that are geographically or psychologically distant and are these more of an issue for the service or the manufacturing sector? (15 marks)
1: Suggested Reading List
Entrepreneurship for everyone: a student textbook Robert B. Mellor, G. R. Coulton c2009
Strategic entrepreneurship Philip A. Wickham 2006
Entrepreneurship in emerging regions around the world: theory, evidence, and implications Phillip Hin Choi Phan, Sankaran Venkataraman, S. Ramakrishna Velamuri 2008
International entrepreneurship in small and medium size enterprises: orientation, environment and strategy Etemad, Hamid 2004
Intrapreneuring in action: a handbook for business innovation Pinchot, Gifford 1999
Knowledge matters: technology, innovation and entrepreneurship in innovation networks and knowledge clusters Elias G. Carayannis, Piero Formica 2008
Competitive advantage in SMEs: organising for innovation and change Oswald Jones, Fiona Tilley c2003
Enterprise: Entrepreneurship and innovation: concepts, contexts and commercialization Lowe, Robin, Marriott, Sue 2006
International business: strategy and the multinational company Cullen, John B., Parboteeah, Praveen 2010
Bridging the culture gap: a practical guide to international business communication Penny Carte, Chris Fox 2008
International management: culture and beyond Richard Mead, Tim G. Andrews 20092: Unit 1: Principles and Concepts of Entrepreneurship
The study of entrepreneurship is not a new phenomenon; Cantillion (circa 1700) and Mill (1848) published definitions of an entrepreneur, with the central theme in both being related to the bearing of risk. Schumpeter (1934) is one of the often quoted more modern commentators on this subject. Schumpeters perspective reflected on the entrepreneurs as an individual, who created new means of production; this was a function that was fundamental to economic development. This theme of economic development, or more accurately re-alignment, was further developed by Aghion & Howitt (1992) when they further examined the process of creative destruction and the analysis and importance of entrepreneurship continues to this day.
It is difficult to watch to watch the news on television or read a newspaper without some commentary on the state of the world economy and the growth and importance of small business within that (assuming that SMEs are (rightly or wrongly) synonymous with entrepreneurial activity)
This has led to a rise of the volume of research on the entrepreneurs (or small business owners) who start and run these SMEs. Consequently the number of competing definitions and models of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial activity have increased. The confusion caused by competing models and definitions is compounded by the fact that the study of entrepreneurship draws from many diverse sources such as sociology, psychology, economics and culture.
Howorth, Tempest and Coupland (2005) summarise the current situation Despite a large number of studies the definition of entrepreneurship and/or an entrepreneur continues to generate debate. (Low, 2001). Some search for an overarching theory of entrepreneurship (Bull and Willard, 1993), whereas others argue that we cannot expect and do not need one theory of entrepreneurship, but instead should build up a body of theories (Gartner, 2001). Beaver and Jennings (2005) concur that defining entrepreneurship is problematic, Entrepreneurship has been the subject of a great deal of important research but as yet and probably never, there is no unified, generally accepted definition or model entrepreneurial development and activity. Thus it could be argued that rather than attempt to create the definitive definition of an entrepreneur, we will simply try to highlight areas of commonality across the competing models and use these as benchmarks for identifying entrepreneurial activity.
A substantial part of the reason for there being no definitive definition of entrepreneurship, lies in the study of the subject as this is approached, as previously stated, from four perspectives: economic, social, psychological or cultural. The economic perspective considers issues such as how the entrepreneur relates to risk taking, innovation (Schumpeter), decision-making and exploiting gaps in the market. The social perspective considers personal attributes and whether these are inherent and could be taught, additionally it looks for specific indicators that could be used to identify group who display entrepreneurial characteristics. The psychological perspective looks to define an entrepreneur in terms of a psychological profile. The cultural perspective is related to the work of Hofstede, and considers entrepreneurialism as a culture phenomenon and how national (if indeed there is a phenomenon such as national culture-although that is a debate for another time!) and local culture can influence and nurture entrepreneurialism.
When these four perspectives are considered, it becomes apparent that some perspectives are examining the entrepreneur and some what the entrepreneur does, so therefore may not be addressing the same question. Howorth, Tempest and Coupland (2005) highlight this confusion In assessing the many definition of an entrepreneur it is clear that there if often difficulty separating characteristics from of the entrepreneur from actions, i.e. what they are from what they do.
2.2: Further Resources
In every unit you will be given a reading list; these will be extensive, however there is no need to read every chapter and article referenced in-depth. I would recommend starting with key texts, which are: Wickam, Lowe and Marriott, and Onkvist and Shaw. If you have time, read the additional material, though any journal articles posted in bold are recommended. The journal articles can be downloaded in PDF form and kept for future reference.
E-Books
Bjerke, B. (2007) Understanding Entrepreneurship, [On-line], Edward Elgar Publishing.Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 8Wickham, P.A. (2006) Strategic Entrepreneurship 4th edition, [On-line], Financial Times Prentice Hall.Chapters 2, 3 and 4Lowe, Robin; Marriott, Sue, (2006) Enterprise: Entrepreneurship and Innovation : Concepts, Contexts and Commercialisation 1st ed.[On-Line] Taylor and Francis.Chapters 1 and 2
Journal Articles
(2011),What is an entrepreneur?: Understanding who they are and how they can benefit, Strategic Direction, Vol. 27 Iss: 6 pp. 22 25.Melissa Grafton, (2011),Growing a business and becoming more entrepreneurial: the five traits of success, Strategic Direction, Vol. 27 Iss: 6 pp. 4 7.Thomas M. Begley, David P. Boyd, Psychological characteristics associated with performance in entrepreneurial firms and smaller businesses, Journal of Business Venturing, Volume 2, Issue 1, Winter 1987, Pages 79-93, ISSN 0883-9026, 10.1016/0883-9026(87)90020-6.Lena Lee, Poh Kam Wong, Maw Der Foo, Aegean Leung, Entrepreneurial intentions: The influence of organisational and individual factors, Journal of Business Venturing, Volume 26, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 124-136, ISSN 0883-9026, 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.04.003.Allen, I. Elaine, and Nan S. Langowitz. Small business leadership: does being the founder matter? Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship 23.1 (2010): 53+.Carsrud, A, & Brannback, M 2011, Entrepreneurial Motivations: What Do We Still Need to Know?, Journal Of Small Business Management, 49, 1, pp. 9-26, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost.
Websites
Read Chapter 4 of SMEs, Entrepreneurship and InnovationThe following websites are a general resource and will be a useful source of information for all of the units in the module:http://www.world-entrepreneurship-forum.com/
http://www.oecd.org/
http://www.entrepreneur.com/
http://www.entrepreneurship.org/
http://www.hbs.edu/entrepreneurship/
http://www.thecorporateentrepreneur.com/
http://www.strategy-business.com/
https://www.ashoka.org/social_entrepreneur
http://www.skollfoundation.org/skoll-entrepreneurs/
http://www.internationalentrepreneurship.com/________________________________________
3: Unit 2: Principles and Concepts of International Entrepreneurship
Whilst the internationalisation of Multi National Enterprise ( MNEs) has been studied extensively, the situation with respect to SME internationalisation is significantly different, as Covellio and Martin (1999) highlight, With regard to firm size, however, the general patterns in the extant literature suggest that the primary interest has been in the large firm activities.
However the on-going expansion of the SME sector, is generating more work in this area. Ambler and Styles (1999) suggested why some SMEs expand (or attempt to expand) internationally, Reasons for considering entry into a foreign market include: the desire to replicate domestic success elsewhere, a home market that is too small for a product and poor performance at home. Lloyd Reason and Mughan (2002) suggest additional reasons for SMEs attempting internationalisation, even if there are apparent internal and external barriers, Domestic markets are no longer the preserve of indigenous companies since these are under attack from overseas competitors. SMEs are not immune from this impact on the internationalisation of the market place and are in turn faced with the need for a strategic response.Whilst Ambler and Styles, and Lloyd Reason and Mughan highlight reasons for SMEs going international, they dont expand on the way in which SMEs go international. A number of models have been proposed to answer the how? question, among these are the business-strategy, the Uppsala model (which is explained in the second link of the further resources section) the broadly similar POM model and the network approach model. The business-strategy approach could be looked upon as a response to (relative) failure in the home market, the Uppsala is close to the stages model and the network approach focuses on the relationships between companies (though at the SME level, it could be argued this is really between individuals) however, even here there is conflict as Westhead et al (2002) suggest, A number of studies have questioned the wider applicability of stage model theories (McDougall et al, 1994; Leonidiou and Katsikeas, 1996) because they have detected that some firms, particularly knowledge and technology firms, are born global firms (Knight and Cavusgil 1996).
This born global scenario is significantly different than the process outlined for MNEs, indeed there seems to be some contradiction that a firm with scarce resources can overcome both internal and external barriers and go international quicker than a much larger more resource rich MNE. Developing an almost immediate international business, is in stark contrast to the stages model and Roots 3 to 5 year timescale. Many reasons are proposed for the born global scenario; the Internet is an obvious vehicle that has allowed easier internationalisation, but issues such as serving and indeed, QUICKLY understanding the nuances of niche markets and thus having to service this market in several countries to be competitive is another.
Environmental factors within certain sectors can also influence internationalisation, it has been suggested that New Technology Business Firms (NTBFs (Keogh and Evans, (1999)) thrive on an international level due to the high pace of change, focus on research and development and involvement in industrial networks, usually through the owner-managers. It would be wrong to assume that the born global phenomenon is attributable to all SMEs and indeed it may only be applicable to be very specific sectors.3.2: Further Resources
E-Books
Wickham, P.A. (2006) Strategic Entrepreneurship 4th edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall Chapter 7 [UDOL library via dawsonera -On-line],
Etemad, H (2004), International Entrepreneurship In Small And Medium Size Enterprises : Orientation, Environment And Strategy, Edward Elgar Chapters 1 and 8 [UDOL library via dawsonera -On-line],
Lowe, Robin; Marriott, Sue, (2006) Enterprise: Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Concepts, Contexts and Commercialisation 1st ed. Taylor and Francis Chapter 6 [UDOL library via dawsonera -On-line],
Journal Articles
Svante Andersson, (2011),International entrepreneurship, born globals and the theory of effectuation, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 18 Iss: 3 pp. 627 643
Shaker A. Zahra, William D. Schulte, (1994),INTERNATIONAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP: BEYOND MYTH AND FOLKLORE, International Journal of Commerce and Management, Vol. 4 Iss: 1 pp. 85 95
Jeryl Whitelock, (2002),Theories of internationalisation and their impact on market entry, International Marketing Review, Vol. 19 Iss: 4 pp. 342 347
Jan Johanson, Jan-Erik Vahlne, (1990),The Mechanism of Internationalisation, International Marketing Review, Vol. 7 Iss: 4
Adam J. Koch, (2001),Factors influencing market and entry mode selection: developing the MEMS model, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 19 Iss: 5 pp. 351 361
J. Augusto Felicio, Vitor R. Caldeirinha and Ricardo Rodrigues (2012) Global mindset and the internationalisation of small firms: The importance of the characteristics of entrepreneurs,International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Vol 8 Iss: 4 pp. 467 -485
Stephen Young, Pavlos Dimitratos, Lo-Paul Dana, (2003) International Entrepreneurship Research: What Scope for International Business Theories? Journal of International Entrepreneurship, Volume 1, Issue 1, pp 31-42
Alex Rialp, Josep Rialp, David Urbano, Yancy Vaillant,(2005) The Born-Global Phenomenon: A Comparative Case Study Research Journal of International Entrepreneurship, Volume 3, Issue 2, pp 133-171 (This is a long article so just read the literature review and the discussion sections.)
Websites
http://geert-hofstede.com/
http://www.obitea.com/
http://money.cnn.com/2007/07/12/magazines/fsb/going_global.fsb/
http://www.going-global.com/articles/analyzing_foreign_markets.htm
http://www.foreign-trade.com/articles.htm
http://www.america.gov/st/econ-english/2008/May/20080603214836eaifas5.498904e-02.html________________________________________
4: Unit 3: Entrepreneurial Firms and Growth
Growth in business is seen almost a pre-requisite, as Johnson and Scholes (1993) highlight, Growth in not optional in many markets. If an organisation chooses to grow more slowly than the competition, it should expect the competitors to gain cost advantage in the longer term through experience. Thus the pursuit of growth is linked not just to higher sales, but to lower costs and thus overall competitiveness. Johnson and Scholes cite competitive forces as a driver of growth, however, both employees and shareholders also expect growth.Literature on growth with references to shareholders, vertical integration and unrelated diversification, is arguably focussed on the MNE sector and it is thus reasonable to pose the question: Does SME growth follow the same patterns as MNE growth?
Given the growing importance of the SME sector to the economy of many countries, growth is one area of SMEs that has been studied extensively as Smallbone and Wyer (1994) highlight, There has probably been more written about small-business growth in recent years than any other aspect of the development or management of small firms. One of the reasons for this, is the contribution of growing firms to economic development and employment generation. On examining literature on SME growth, there is one difference that is immediately identifiable between MNEs and SMEs and that is the vast majority of SMEs never grow beyond their small status, i.e. they grow to a certain size (still within the SME categorisation) and then this growth levels off and the firm is sustained at that level. Based on Johnson and Scholes, and Karnani, this no growth scenario would be a recipe for disaster and failure, but this appears not to be the case in the SME sector.
However, the SME who grow and the route that these firms have followed to grow is of interest. Gibb and Davies (1991) completed a major literature review on the subject of SME growth and from this review they suggested four alternative approaches the SME usually follow. These approaches are outlined below:
Organisational development.
Business management.
Sectoral and broader market led.
Personality dominated.
It could be argued that approaches one to three, have their foundations in MNE theory, the organisational development approach, simply the life cycle theory, as highlighted by Yewin and Koza above. Authors such as Greiner (1972) and Churchill and Lewis (1983) have attempted to develop the life cycle model for SME further, by proposing additional stages to reflect firm formation. However, this approach veers towards being too descriptive; with little analysis of how the transition from stage to stage occurs. It could be argued that it is why a firm is at a position in its life cycle that is of interest, as exactly where it is in its life cycle. The business management approach could be viewed as classical theory, based on Ansoff and covering the five MNE growth routes highlighted above. There is probably some relevance in this approach to describing SME growth, as though relatively small SMEs do grow by the classical routes, however, growth is probably not driven by either the market or by shareholders.Gibb and Davies included the sectoral approach in their summary, but this is considered by many authors to be very problematic, as this approach is based on projecting the future growth of a firm from its past performance.The final approach highlighted, the personality dominated, focuses on the attitude of the owner-manager to growth. The situation of the limited growth in general, in the SME sector phenomena of the no growth owner-manager, has been reviewed earlier in this section. However, there are firms that grow out with the limited growth seen in the sector in general, and why these firms grow is of interest. Storey (1994) identified three factors that influence SME growth characteristics of the entrepreneur (owner-manager), characteristics of the firm and management strategies. The external environment is another factor that needs to be considered, as this can be both a barrier to growth for a firm seeking growth, but it can assist growth in different circumstances.
4.2: Further Resources
There is a wealth of reading and academic video film clips available on this topic and those listed below are simply a selection.
E-Books
Robert Mellor with Gary Coulton et a, (2009) Entrepreneurship for everyone: a student textbook [UDOL library via dawsonera -On-line] Sage Chapter 4Lowe, Robin; Marriott, Sue, (2006) Enterprise: Entrepreneurship and Innovation : Concepts, Contexts and Commercialisation 1st ed [UDOL library via dawsonera -On-line] Taylor and Francis Chapter 12
Journals
Reijonen, H, Laukkanen, T, Komppula, R, & Tuominen, S 2012, Are Growing SMEs More Market-Oriented and Brand-Oriented?, Journal Of Small Business Management, 50, 4, pp. 699-716Morrison, A, Breen, J, & Ali, S 2003, Small Business Growth: Intention, Ability, and Opportunity, Journal Of Small Business Management, 41, 4, pp. 417-425Niina Nummela, Kaisu Puumalainen, Sami Saarenketo, (2005) International Growth Orientation of Knowledge-Intensive SMES, Journal of International Entrepreneurship Volume 3, Issue 1, pp 5-18
Websites
http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/3374.htmlGrowth in times of austerity YouTubeChallenges of growth and success YouTube________________________________________
5: Unit 4: Immediate Startup or Grow in Stages
Small business or individuals have always had opportunity for international trade and one only has to look at the ancient lands and trade practices of the Sumerians, Romans, Indians, Ancient Greeks etc. all through history to the Victorian era and beyond to appreciate that trade has always taken place. However, it could be argued that it is only recently, with the advent of new technologies, that truly international trade has become available to the individual or small business.The ever improving communication links now allow for instant transfer of knowledge and (perhaps futuristically) with the growth in 3D printers, instant delivery of goods. Technology in particular the Internet has therefore been a key element in the trend to globalisation. Technology and Globalisation have become mutually reinforcing with the global market also enhancing the profitability of the new technologies (Aggarwal, 1999).This growth in technology has allowed what were perhaps deemed to be niche markets to grow and become economically viable when viewed as a global commodity. Sourcing of parts (providing opportunity for suppliers), specialist equipment and growth in service opportunities, to name but a few, are all providing opportunities for growth for small business.It is also worth considering whether there are push or pull reasons for entering international markets. Some small business may simply enter the market due to over capacity or stiff competition in their home market. It may also be the changing face of the market in which they provide goods or services. As an example, accounting, banking or finance firms seeing a change in their client groups who themselves are becoming more international and are, in turn, demanding a similar outlook/service from their accountant, bank etc.5.1: The International Start Up
So far, we have concentrated on the existing business moving into international markets. However, some businesses are specifically set up with a view to becoming an international player almost immediately. Alfred Weber was arguably the first economist to propose that a business would choose its location based on lowest cost. His basic argument was that a firm would choose a location based on the cheapest transport and labour costs. Of course the transport would have to factor in the costs of transport to ultimate destination rather than simply within the country of origin.The increasing numbers of new venture international start-ups generally do so because they derive some form of significant competitive advantage from doing so (Oviatt & McDougall, 1994) and will always initiate an international business strategy as their starting point. Typically, they may have resources and production spread across a number of countries or geographic locations and will make use of international sourcing for their own raw materials. This may include utilising existing networks which the owners have, for example, gained in previous employment or investigating and setting up completely new networks solely for the purpose of their new venture.Johnson (2004) mentions a number of reasons and factors which influenced the decision to internationalise almost immediately. Amongst those were internal factors such as vision of the founders, international experience of the founders, avoidance of domestic inertia etc. External factors such as the international nature of the industry, economies of scale, borderless product are also amongst a number which are analysed. Finally, facilitating factors which Johnson suggests include the advances in international communication, advances in international transport and advances in process technology.You can read Johnsons thoughts in full by accessing the journal Johnson, Jeffrey E. (2004). Factors Influencing the Early Internationalization of High Technology Start-ups: US and UK Evidence, Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 2 (1), pp.139-154.5.2: The Stage Model of Internationalisation
The stage model is, as the name implies, a more gradual process. It is argued that small firms will progress their international development through specific stages of export development. Vernon (1996) proposes a (relatively basic) model where the process of international development is through a version of product life cycle. Starting with domestic product development, this is followed by exporting overseas, increasing in quantity as demand grows. The final stage is moving/transferring/creating overseas production as domestic demand falls and international demand grows. This stage is often coupled with low cost production opportunities internationally although not necessarily in the country which provides the sales market.Dicken (1998) also envisaged a sequential process, starting (again) in terms of a domestic market and moving into overseas production. However, as shown in the figure below, he also introduces a number of other variables from the (more) basic model of Vernon such as overseas agents, purchase of overseas firms etc.Source: Global shift, mapping the changing contours of the world economy. Peter Dicken. The Guilford press, London, P118
The most in depth study of the process was by Johanson & Vahlne (1977) who examined the possibilities for internationalisation beyond that of simple export. Their internationalisation process model was published in 1977 after they had worked with Finn Wiedersheim-Paul at the Uppsala University (hence the name) beginning in the 1960s. Their theory revolved around the premise that gradual and incremental development were the main characteristics of international expansion. Organisations, they suggested, could best reduce their risk level by adopting an evolutionary approach.The internationalisation process model or Uppsala model was based on four case studies of Swedish companies with operations in more than 20 countries:
Volvo automobile and truck manufacturer
Sandvik industrial tool manufacturer
Atlas Copco compressor and industrial tool manufacturer
Facit electro-mechanical office equipment manufacturer.
Johanson and Vahlne found that these firms had built their presence in foreign markets incrementally they often develop their international operations in small steps, rather than by making large foreign production investments at single point in time using two variables:1. level of commitment in a particular host country2. level of market knowledge to steer the direction of the geographic expansion(as quoted in Elgar, Edward (2003). Learning in the Internationalisation Process of Firms)5.3: Market Commitment
Johanson and Vahlne distinguished four sequential steps where each consecutive step meant an increased resource commitment to a particular market. Their establishment chain consisted of:1. irregular export activities
2. export via independent sales representative
3. establishment of overseas sales subsidiary
4. establishment of foreign manufacturing subsidiaries.The more resources a firm committed to a market, the greater their gain in exposure and experience and the trust to commit more resources. In essence the whole process has an in built risk aversive element. Johanson and Vahlne demonstrated that a firm will enter a new market at the lowest resource commitment possible and begin to expand from this level following the establishment chain. The choice of entry mode is dependent on the degree of opportunity, risk association, the size of the prospective market, and the urgency of expansion. Resource commitment is dependent upon two factors:1. amount of resources committed
2. degree of commitment.
(as quoted in Elgar, Edward (2003). Learning in the Internationalisation Process of Firms)5.4: Market Knowledge
Organisations enter those markets that they know best and only move into more distant/unfamiliar markets after feeling that they have gained sufficient knowledge and understanding of that particular market. Johanson and Vahlne introduced psychic distance to measure a markets foreignness which they defined as factors preventing or disturbing the flows of information between firm and market, including variables such as language, culture, political, legal and educational systems. The order of the different stages in the internationalisation process is directly related to the relative psychic distance between home country and host country: the further countries are in terms of psychic distance, the fewer resources firms are willing to commit to those particular markets.In 1990, Johanson and Vahlne reviewed their earlier findings (full article can be viewed at here) and listed three situations when firms do not need to follow the incremental steps of the establishment chain:1. firms with access to a large pool of resources are less susceptible to the consequences of (bad) commitments and able to step up their internationalisation effort at a faster rate;
2. relevant market knowledge can be acquired in ways other than through direct experience when market conditions are stable and homogeneous;
3. once a firm has gained experience from a market with similar conditions, it may be possible to generalise this experience and apply it to the new target market.As one would expect, there are critics of this model and even the reviewed elements. Leonidou and Katsikeas question the dynamic progression elements and suggest that there is no empirical evidence to support this. Other theorists such as Reuber & Fisher 1997 suggest that one of the key elements is quite simply management desire.There are of course other factors which will influence the decision to internationalise a business and how to achieve this. Existing networks or (so called) immigrant networks (first generation immigrants who have ties to both settled country and country of birth) will both play a large part in the decision. Government help, assistance or in some cases hindrance will also play a part and is discussed in greater detail in unit six.Please complete the end of unit activities and consider reading all of the additional readings in the further resources section.
5.6: Further Resources
There is a wealth of reading and academic video film clips available on this topic and those listed below are simply a limited selection. Consider the ones in bold to be (particularly) recommended
E-Books
Enterprise: Entrepreneurship and Innovation (available online via dawsonera, UDOL library) Robin Lowe And Sue Marriott. Pages: 471 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Ltd Published: Jun 14, 2006 Chapter 8 Multicultural Entrepreneurship starts page 242
Journal Articles
Johnson, Jeffrey E. (2004). Factors Influencing the Early Internationalization of High Technology Start-ups: US and UK Evidence, Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 2 (1), pp.139-154.
Baughn,C Neupert,K Facilitating Entrepreneurial Start-ups Journal of International Entrepreneurship September 2003, Volume 1, Issue 3, pp 313-330
Pettersen, I.B, Tobiassen,A.E, Are born globals really born globals? The case of academic spin-offs with long development periods Journal of International Entrepreneurship, June 2012, Volume 10, Issue 2, pp 117-141
Crick, D. The International Entrepreneurial Decision of UK SMEs to Discontinue Overseas Activities: A Research Note Reporting Practices Within the Clothing Industry Eighteen Months on Journal of International Entrepreneurship December 2003, Volume 1, Issue 4, pp 405-413________________________________________
6: Unit 5: Innovation & Enterprise
An innovation strategy is a vital part of any organisations corporate strategy!
Firm-specific knowledge is an essential feature of competitiv